Essay On Pop Culture

Technological advancements the last decades have contributed to the creation of a globalized era, with the English language as a common denominator, as the major language spoken between those who do not share any language. Globalization have made it possible for an extreme output of popular culture that has mainly origins of English speaking countries with U. S. A. as the main exporter of popular culture through music, movies, television etc. In this essay I explore the positive aspects that using popular music in the classroom might potentially have.In my main issues I discuss the motivational aspects of popular culture, why teachers might feel insecure or unwilling to use the student's personal interests of popular culture in the classroom. Also how popular culture can be used to understand the cultural values of foreign countries and societies. Furthermore I will present some practical tasks and suggestions for lessons in how to use popular culture and the sub-category music as th e most important teaching resource within popular culture in exercises in the classroom as a motivating way to promote communicative skills of the language.Also important aspects on how cultural and historic influences on music by people and countries can be used to teach students of other values and how music can be used to create understanding for other peoples way of perceiving life. Major Issues: Inviting the student's social environment into the classroom: Motivational effects of popular culture one important factor for successful learning in any context is motivation, a concept that in all forms of education is a key to classroom learning (Harrett & Benjamin, 2009, p. 138).Language learning is not just about teaching student’s formal academic language. In order for a student to be able to effectively communicate in a broader context the student also needs to have knowledge of the informal language and social structures that might not be as present in the literature the schools provide. These issues can be however found within popular culture such as media from television or music, in order to engage in the situations of their life where they have to adapt their language to â€Å"the various domains of their world† (Lambirth, 2003, p. 11)In teaching languages, the introduction of popular culture is a method of creating motivation, as the students can then relate their classroom work to their knowledge, experience and interests of their social life (Harrett & Benjamin, 2009, p. 134). In a study of the English subject for second language learners in Mexican schools it is suggested that an increased attention to popular music in the curriculum would enhance the students motivation for the English language as activities involving this sub-category of popular culture would; â€Å"Using their knowledge, their music and their language.† (Domoney & Harris, 1993, p. 235).Music is such a popular concept for the students, used correctly, it will help to motivate and increase the interest of a subject through a conscious and emotional involvement from the students (Kanel, 1997, p. 218). Pop culture is a way of gaining the student's interest, by connecting the student’s familiar knowledge of the English language that they are exposed to outside of school. Using the students’ knowledge of popular culture will then serve as a meaningful resource to teach the language (Lambirth, 2003, p.12).Using popular culture makes students more prone to learning the subject and will prevent any inhibitions of learning that comes from an affective filter; Peter Krashen's metaphor for when the student feels anxiety, boredom, stress and/or other pressures, they create an emotional barrier that prevent learning (Kanel, 1997, p. 219, Griffee, 1988, p. 24). Developments in English language teaching have been on the interaction and negotiation of the students and on the importance of integrating their experiences, knowledge and feeli ngs into classroom.The ideas and discussions revolving about pop music included these valuable inputs from outside of school and came together and related to the more communicative focus of language learning that is still a popular method of teaching (Domoney & Harris, 1993). â€Å"They get enough of that at home†: Claims that pop culture does not belong in the classroom are outdated. Teachers might feel a general unwillingness toward incorporating popular culture in the classroom and there are often several issues that create this point of view.Teachers might not understand the contemporary popular culture of today’s youth and therefore project negative thoughts on what is popular, expressing ideas such as; children who are more interested in popular culture are not as bright as those who prefer reading. Teachers might also regard pop culture as contra productive for student’s creativity and reason that they get enough of input in their spare time (Lambirth, 20 03). However, the teachers are not those who can fully take the blame for not wanting to incorporate popular culture in the classroom.The teachers are caught between the two strong influences, of the popular culture industry and those who create the educational policies (Lambirth, 2003) It might therefore be unfair to lay blame on teachers for not wanting to take a gamble on their jobs and career by using methods that does not follow their curriculum. Using popular culture in the subject demands some knowledge of current technology and in using media properly in the classroom.The teacher education programs lack the teaching of these issues, young teachers are therefore anxious in using these kinds of modern methods of teaching as they do not want to stray too far from the curriculum. It is of the essence that the teacher training programs start education the students in how to properly use these ways to keep the next generation in tune with the progressive modern digital world. (Har rett & Benjamin, 2009)Classrooms can no longer be a room and place where local traditions are taught and implemented upon the students; the role that popular culture plays suggest that there is a need for better education of informal language (Pennycook, 2010, p. 82). The globalization have created transcultural flows of popular cultures that appeal the students in different ways and many students can no longer be affected by only the local traditions. The student's identities are instead reflected by the popular music and culture that are in constant flow.If the education for our future generations want to stay in touch with the trends of society, by paying attention to the student's knowledge, identity, interests and desires, then it is crucial that issues the students can relate to, such as popular culture are introduced into the language learning in schools (Pennycook, 2010, p. 82). Research supporting the use of pop culture & music in the classroom As i have mentioned above in my paragraph on motivation, pop music is a very large branch of the popular culture and there are studies that affirm musical knowledge and skill as useful and valuable in the classroomAll human beings possess varying degrees of musical intelligence, one of the intelligences that the human race has developed, the others are; linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic and personal intelligences. Asserted in the educational theory of â€Å"multiple intelligences† by Gardner in 1985 (Failoni, 1993). The theory of multiple intelligences confirm that excluding those with brain damage, every person on this earth possess some form of musical intelligence.Anthropologists have acknowledged after tests on both normal and learning disabled-students that music attributes to several functions of language learning that is important. The properties of music, that include: rhythm, melody, harmony, dynamics, form and mood, aids in the cognitive process of gaining vocabulary , enhance retention and is a good way to promote general language development and reading skills (Kanel, 1997). Music can be viewed as an instrument which everybody in the classroom can be involved in use and understand.It is therefore certainly arguable that integrating the musical intelligence in the classroom as a teaching tool by adopting and adapting it into lessons and activities without any demand on either teacher or student to have any knowledge on how to perform or compose music (Failoni, 1993). Audio-lingual method of teaching also supports the use of authentic songs, if the songs are properly chosen so that there is no abundance in non-standard grammar or excessive slang.As the songs that are constructed for ESL lacked the effectively to interest the student as the lyrics ended up being a collection of phonemes in a text (Kanel, 1997). Also the pedagogical theories of Vygotsky as well as Lave and Wenger are applicable to methods of using popular culture in the classroom. Lave and Wenger's theories of situated learning theory states that learning occur naturally through activities, contexts and cultures. The learners utilize their knowledge and experience from their informal sociocultural world and apply them to understand new information.Vygotsky's theories of the socio-cultural are based on how children acquire knowledge through their culture (Debbie, 2007). Even though these theories are abstract they are both successful and popular within pedagogical methods and theories. And they are highly related to the student's exposure of popular culture. the popular culture is an important sphere in which the student's identity outside of school is affirmed, challenged, taken apart and reconstructed (Pennycook, 2010). Teaching values of cultures: Understanding cultural aspects through contemporary popular cultureTo perceive cultures as national entities with shared values and are separated by boundaries of borders to other countries is to look at culture from a very narrow perspective. Culture can be described as â€Å"‘Big C & little c† The Big C are the formal institutions of a country, little c being the daily lives studied by sociologists and anthropologists, patterns of behavior and cultural traditions. When learning a second language, culture is a prominent theme in the process of learning the new language, and that involves studying customs and beliefs of a country (Yuen, 2011).This perspective of culture becomes complex and problematic when studying languages of a nation that have a lot of diversity and different ethnicities. France is an example of an ethnic diverse country because of their imperial history. Through the French hip-hop scene that have been one of the prominent genres for the last two decades we can study the way in which the informal languages of the streets have evolved by influence of various cultures. Traditionalists have disregarded these linguistic features because of their departure from t raditional grammar (Pennycook, 2010).The French hip-hop culture however despite averting from traditional grammar have their own grammatical rules that is followed, (Chi'en, 2008) discusses the weird English that is a result of globalization and of many different English languages co-existing, the same goes for the French hip-hop lingua, it is not broken or radical or â€Å"wrong† it is in fact a form of art; one which can be reproduced only with knowledge of the genre. The hip-hop scene has become a new symbol for the â€Å"tricolor† i. e. the French flag.The opposition of the nationalistic red, blue & white flag which does not symbolize the society of modern France should instead be ascribed to the new colors; â€Å"black, blanc & beur† representing the multiracial, multicultural & multilingual society that is a more objective reflection of how the French social scene looks today. (Pennycook, 2010) Discussing the history of either Jazz, Rock & Roll or Rap is a way of learning the cultural aspects of the African-American community and the roots of both genres which both were born in Africa and brought to America, carried by the slaves and further evolved there to what it is today.  (Omoniyi, 2006)The global use of English has been a key factor to the spreading of the popular culture from major informal institutions such as Hollywood, or the hip-hop music which has been very influential world wide. Studying the re-appropriation of the hip-hop music in African countries as Nigera gives insight of how their values are reflected in songs by comparing them to North American contemporaries.Although the artists in Nigeria are similar to their colleagues in the U. S.  by following the trends of popular culture in appearance, the Nigerian hip-hop differ a lot in their lyrics, such as different themes such as love instead of the misogynist ideals represented in the American hip-hop. (Omonyi, 2006) Studying the sub-genres of hip hop African coun tries gives us knowledge of the African countries that speak English as native tongue and is a part of the globalization of the English language, but are even so underrepresented in text books supplied by schools (Yuen, 2011)The result of the English globalization is that there are a lot of countries that have their own unique music, even though they share the same genre as other English speaking countries. Irish folk music is a popular sub-genre of the folk music, which has aspects of entertainment values with songs about drinking and what the comical consequences of drinking too much. Many songs also contain more serious and political protest songs against British tyranny or the songs about the civil war in Ireland, giving the audience a broad insight into the countries culture and history by listening to their music.But teachers using these methods to promote cultural understanding should be wary not to promote stereotypes of a country â€Å"That Mexicans only dance the hat danc e for example† (Failoni, 1993). Implications for Practice â€Å"Music, the great communicator† the phrase that popular rock group Red Hot Chili Peppers coined in their song Can't Stop. It cannot be assumed that they implicated anything regarding language learning, but they did in fact have a valid point with that statement. Music can be used in teaching the all four strands of language learning; listening, reading, speaking & writing.Students experiencing difficulties with communication skills are likely to react positively to the entertaining aspects of music and might improve their communicative skills as rhymes, melodies and rhythm are easier to remember than ordinary speech (Failoni, 1993). Teaching informal language is something that I have stressed in this article as the researchers have argued that it is important to integrate more of the student's experience from outside of school to promote student participation (Pennycook, 2010).Using authentic pop music as li stening material have been since the 70's gained an increased popularity, because it colloquialism that student's otherwise miss out on in the classroom (Griffee, 1988). Furthermore it will make student's aware of phonetic structures. Listening exercises can be used with mixing reading comprehension, having the students underlining vocabulary in text that is chosen by the teacher consciously as a specific goal for learning (Failoni, 1993).Taking the next step with music from the listening comprehension to speaking, pronunciation skills are improved by the student first hearing the lines and the repeating them with the rythm of music as a cognitive help for the student to more pronounce the words more aptly. (Failoni, 1993) Communicative exercises can be created on the base of exploring different musical styles which is an easy alternative for teachers willing to introduce music in the classroom.(Failoni 1993) There are also a lot of different cultural aspects and styling’s th at can be taught in the classroom to promote cultural awareness. Exercises to engage students about culture can be done through finding songs that are unique in the way that they are symbols of the country or region, some examples are: The Genius of Ravi Shankar (India) Rampal Japanese Melodies (Japan) Bagpipe Music (Scotland) Bach's Toccata & Fugue in D minor (Germany) (Griffee, 1988) Playing these kind of songs can be used in form of quizzes as relaxed competitive tasks for the students.World map’s in the classroom than this is a great tool for enhancing the task and going deeper into details. Further ways are giving the students pictures of things that symbolize the origin of the song, pictures of what kind of food is eaten there, how the buildings looks like, historical remnants like the coliseum. The songs are repeated and the students are asked to chronologically place the pictures based on the order of the songs. This is method is pedagogical in a cognitive way by the connecting the visual and hearing senses.After all the countries of the songs played then follow-up activities is a way to discuss further create cultural awareness by discussions on for an example based on the pictures in front of them, (Griffee 1988) Understanding of social and political structures, both past and contemporary can be discussed and understood under the basis of only discussing a genre of music, listening to Latin American pop music presents the listener to nationalistic views (Failoni, 1988).This is a way for the students to learn these things as many youths are interested in the music. And if it so happens that the students in that particular classroom is not interested in the Hip Hop / Rap genre then the positive thing is that there are an infinite amount of genres to explore. An option is also not using only one genre as a discussion point but bringing in the option for students to do research on the unique historical and cultural aspects of the music they listen to.

Determinism and Its Moral Implications

Drew Lewis 11/13/11 Philosophy Determinism and its Moral Implications Q: There are powerful arguments that there is no such thing as free will. But people in ordinary life tend to presuppose there is free will when they talk about people deserving good or bad treatment, rewards and punishments. Some kinds of rewards and punishments encourage good behavior and discourage bad behavior, so those make sense even if there is no free will. But what about punishments for crimes that are impossible to deter (like crimes of passion) or rewarding talents people can’t choose to have (like Olympic medals or Nobel prizes for science)? Do these practices still make sense if there is no free will? If not, how would it make sense to change our institutions? Our entire mental state is a product of the chemical and physical properties of our neurons at any given time, and changes are produced directly by communications within the central nervous system and between the peripheral and central nervous system. To be astonished at this fact is to underestimate the design complexity and sheer number of neurons present in the body. To assert there is a magical force called free will is unfounded and illogical. Your mind is governed by the same laws which govern all other matter of which you have no control. Free will, however, remains a popular belief mainly because of its connections to religion and the perception of introspection. When we introspect it is easy to convince ourselves that there is something spiritual inside; our mind is spontaneous, indecisive, creative, and often irrational. These qualities are, for the most part, absent in robotics, which supports a widely held belief that they can’t be synthesized. Determinism simply says that the mind can be predicted like a chemical reaction can be predicted; there is nothing special about our minds which hold them above physical laws. The mind is a complicated construct, and its vast number of interactions with the environment makes it impossible to predict. The simplest computer able to accurately model exactly what will occur in the human mind would be as complex as the universe itself. Because one does not have control over the functions inside one’s own brain, and because the functions in the brain determine thought process, no one has control of their thoughts. Determinism raises a number of interesting moral questions. Determinism is an unpopular theory mostly because its conclusion is misunderstood. Determinists can agree on a type of free will, which is simply defined on an individual acting or thinking in a healthy mental state and without influence. Given this situation an individual can be said to be thinking independently. The individual, according to determinists, has no control over his thought process, but he is, by popular definition, using his free will and judgment. Even if it is intangible, the concept is none the less incredibly important. The complete rejection of free will would have devastating consequences. Without free will humans lose responsibility, and without responsibility humans lose justice, which is the purest and most righteous human construct. The theory of determinism uses logic not based on speculation, and as theories come, it is one of the most foolproof. The important question to me is how to go about recognizing the truth of determinism without allowing it to affect life negatively. No one can say for sure whether complete recognition of determinism would be a good or bad, but I believe there is an overwhelming argument that the rejection of the concept of free will would have disastrous consequences. It brings up the interesting question if it is better to know the truth about something if it has negative consequences. Though I believe strongly in determinism, I treat my actions like I have control of them. This attitude is important for my well-being for numerous reasons. If one does not have control one’s thoughts or actions, are rewards and punishments necessary or even beneficial? The answer is yes. A healthy mind needs rewards and punishments in every situation in order to grow and improve. Reinforcements increase the likelihood of an action and punishments tend to decrease the likelihood of an action. Taking away these vital signals in the brain would cause disaster for the psyche. As a child you are constantly being conditioned. It’s the reason you have the gut reaction to think for a second before making a large purchase. It’s also the reason you work hard in school or at a job. Every time you were praised for a good grade or punished for a bad one, it ingrained in your mind what is ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ which in turn influences your motivation and attitude. The more reinforcement you receive the better conditioned you are to cope with your environment. We don’t, however, learn simply from reinforcements. A lot of trial and error is saved because we can observe others and learn from them. Everyone tries to emulate those who they see being rewarded the most through a conscious or unconscious attraction to their reinforcement. These people are known to us as heroes. Inversely we also tend to try not to be like villains – those who fail to gain rewards or are excessively punished. This is why it is so important for us to reward athletes and scholars, even though they did not exhibit free will. As children, most people aspire to be firefighters, soldiers, astronauts, or police officers. More than other professions, these are people who are presented to kids as heroes. The sole purpose of rewarding heroes might have the trivial goal of rewarding their good deeds, however it also has the noble effect of inspiring others to emulate them. By taking away the benefit of prestige, excellence fails to stand out from mediocrity. In psychology there is a subject called attribution. It is the study of what people attribute their experiences to. Some people blame themselves for things, and therefore are called internal attributers (as opposed to external attributers). If a person believes that their experiences can be manipulated they are called dynamic attributers (as opposed to static attributers). In order to truly believe that your experience is a result of your actions and that you can also change those actions, you must also believe in a form of free will. Without free will you could not change your actions, nor can you be held accountable for them. Psychology has shown that people who attribute their experiences internally and dynamically are less likely to suffer from depression than all other attribution types. In addition to depression many other types of psychological disorders such as mania are thought to be caused by static and external attribution. Free will is a defining theme in the punishment/reform debate dealing with prisons. If free will isn’t real the American prison system should operate solely for the purpose of reform and the isolation of those determined to be a danger to society. Without free will, punishment is trivial except for its uses as a reformation tool and as a deterrent to those thinking of committing a crime. In the case of life in prison or the death sentence there is no possibility for rehabilitation. If a prisoner couldn’t be rehabilitated using a reasonable amount of resources, a determinist may accept the benefits of a life sentence or death penalty. Life sentences and death sentences are considered positive because they keep people who are dangerous isolated from those they could harm, while simultaneously serving as a warning to others to prevent them from committing acts which could prove them dangerous. It is hard, when comparing the life sentence with the death penalty, which is worse. Whichever causes the least harm to the individual in question would be the best option. I personally believe it is more humane to end a human’s life painlessly (and as soon after conviction as possible) than to keep them locked in a cell until they die slowly of disease. It is likely that our ancestors were predisposed to the idea of free will and were favored because of it. The concept of free will gives you more motivation to hand down reinforcement, whether it is positive or negative, to those around you. It also helps you accept reinforcement from others. The concept of free will is a powerful force that keeps societies working correctly. Our entire legal and social system is based on the concept of free will. Everything in society is interlocking, so if we try to change society to fit the new idea that free will is irrelevant we will find inconsistencies and injustice until a solution is found in a stable society not based on the recognition of free will. Societal upheaval would be ridiculous because it wouldn’t accomplish anything. Judgment using free will is second nature to us as humans. When asked about Hitler, a Holocaust survivor, even a determinist one, wouldn’t say, ‘He did terrible things but it wasn’t his fault because he has no control over what happens in his rain. ’ Determinist ideals can only go so far before they become eclipsed by human emotion; therefore it would be ill advised to try to change society to fit the new theory. As you can see, the theory of determinism has many interesting theoretical implications, but very little actual applications. Its theoretical implications could be the most important, however. Combined with nihilism a nd agnosticism, it forms a rounded view of the universe which is grounded in science and reason without confusion from religion or human emotion. I believe that if philosophers can pursue this track of thought, devoid of spirituality and belief, philosophers can finally make progress in finding real answers. Determinism is still widely misunderstood. I was surprised how many of my classmates did not understand even the basic principles after spending time learning about it. The challenge philosophy faces is to present determinism, and other theories like it in a way which people can relate without losing the true meaning.

English Is Fun

As cities become bigger and cars less expensive, the numbers of automobiles on the road are likely to increase, worsening the problem of traffic congestion. As more people move to the edge of town and cities, traffic congestion may get worse. Many people will drive their cars into the city centre to get work. To address this, governments need to ensure that there are fewer cars on the roads, but individuals must do their part in support of official measures. There are three ways to reduce traffic congestion which is by improving the road infrastructure, car pooling and awareness campaign.The first way that is suitable to take an action is by improving the road infrastructure. In this case, the government should take part which is they have to built an alternative ways or road. This is because there are many people that used the same road in every day especially in a big city. By adding the alternative road, the user can choose either one of road that they want to use. It can make the road become less crowded and the traffic congestion can be reduced. Besides that, wider the size of line at the road. For example, from two line become three line.When the roads are become bigger, all the vehicle can move smoothly. Improving the road infrastructure can help to reduce the traffic congestion’s problem in a big cities. Secondly, the ways to reduce traffic congestion is carpooling or sharing car with friend. Nobody likes to sit in traffic. By car pooling, you’re doing your part to reduce the number of cars on the road. The more people who make that choice, the less traffic congestion there will be. People in big cities like Kuala Lumpur is more prefer using their own car.Imagine that if there are have 50 000 people, it is mean there are have 50 000 car or transport on the road. It will affect the bad problem on the road like traffic congestion. If we sharing car with friends or carpooling, it will decrease an amount of car or transport on the road and can reduce this problem. Make sure during we are sharing car, we must to maximum people at least 4 until 5 person in car or more than one based on type of car. Other than that, with using this alternative, the time will not wasting and also decrease the air pollution because there are a few car and transport were used and produce less of smoke.Take for example, we are going to work by sharing car with our neighbours and friends, so that the traffic congestion problem can we avoid because only a few of them are use car. Thus, carpooling or sharing car with friend is the way to reduce traffic congestion. One of the way to solve the traffic congestion is to organize the awareness campaign. A traffic jam may cause people waste a lot of time if the condition is worst and eventually ended up with late to work or to school. So, is very important for society to put in mind that to plan their time when they got out effectively to avoid by getting stuck in the middle in the road.A worker should choose to go to earlier or walk to the workplace if possible. In conclusion, improving the road infrastructure, car pooling and awareness campaign are the three ways to reduce the traffic congestion’s problem in the big cities. Only by the combination of government policy and the acceptance by individuals of the responsibility for the problems related to the increasing number of cars in cities, can help to reduce this problem from keep happen. It is when individuals make a commitment to change that policy measures can be effectively implemented. English Is Fun As cities become bigger and cars less expensive, the numbers of automobiles on the road are likely to increase, worsening the problem of traffic congestion. As more people move to the edge of town and cities, traffic congestion may get worse. Many people will drive their cars into the city centre to get work. To address this, governments need to ensure that there are fewer cars on the roads, but individuals must do their part in support of official measures. There are three ways to reduce traffic congestion which is by improving the road infrastructure, car pooling and awareness campaign.The first way that is suitable to take an action is by improving the road infrastructure. In this case, the government should take part which is they have to built an alternative ways or road. This is because there are many people that used the same road in every day especially in a big city. By adding the alternative road, the user can choose either one of road that they want to use. It can make the road become less crowded and the traffic congestion can be reduced. Besides that, wider the size of line at the road. For example, from two line become three line.When the roads are become bigger, all the vehicle can move smoothly. Improving the road infrastructure can help to reduce the traffic congestion’s problem in a big cities. Secondly, the ways to reduce traffic congestion is carpooling or sharing car with friend. Nobody likes to sit in traffic. By car pooling, you’re doing your part to reduce the number of cars on the road. The more people who make that choice, the less traffic congestion there will be. People in big cities like Kuala Lumpur is more prefer using their own car.Imagine that if there are have 50 000 people, it is mean there are have 50 000 car or transport on the road. It will affect the bad problem on the road like traffic congestion. If we sharing car with friends or carpooling, it will decrease an amount of car or transport on the road and can reduce this problem. Make sure during we are sharing car, we must to maximum people at least 4 until 5 person in car or more than one based on type of car. Other than that, with using this alternative, the time will not wasting and also decrease the air pollution because there are a few car and transport were used and produce less of smoke.Take for example, we are going to work by sharing car with our neighbours and friends, so that the traffic congestion problem can we avoid because only a few of them are use car. Thus, carpooling or sharing car with friend is the way to reduce traffic congestion. One of the way to solve the traffic congestion is to organize the awareness campaign. A traffic jam may cause people waste a lot of time if the condition is worst and eventually ended up with late to work or to school. So, is very important for society to put in mind that to plan their time when they got out effectively to avoid by getting stuck in the middle in the road.A worker should choose to go to earlier or walk to the workplace if possible. In conclusion, improving the road infrastructure, car pooling and awareness campaign are the three ways to reduce the traffic congestion’s problem in the big cities. Only by the combination of government policy and the acceptance by individuals of the responsibility for the problems related to the increasing number of cars in cities, can help to reduce this problem from keep happen. It is when individuals make a commitment to change that policy measures can be effectively implemented.

N Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

N - Assignment Example Just as it applies to other corporate firms, planning strategically is adopted by hospitals following the same pattern that initiates with formulation, proceeds with execution, then evaluation of outcomes thereafter. Based on a more formal convention, carrying out a strategic plan essentially consists of four stages: -- (1) strategic formulation; (2) strategy implementation; (3) strategy monitoring; and (4) a disciplined analysis – all of which are linked from one stage on to the next in a loop, implying that the implemented strategy does not necessarily have to occur merely once with the same founded setting. The stages in cycle depict the flexibility at implementing schematic flow of agreements such that upon reaching the final stage and the strategies are assessed to have fallen short of meeting the targeted ends or set requirements and objectives, the responsible medical administrative body goes to find alternative means by which to remedy and modify with a new set of plans to work on. On accomplishing a strategy, the medical institution may need to prepare in coping with internal changes concerning the set objectives, action plans and budgets generated, level of accountability, duties and culture, as well as timelines. The course of implementation varies with complexity especially as it becomes spontaneously affected by factors that come in barrier form as – management barrier, vision barrier, people barrier, and resource barrier. Market assessment outline eventually requires thorough analytics as observed or studied from the strategic planning executed. A research on a well-implemented strategic plan indicates tight connection between long-term strategy and measures to more tactical planning and budgetting. Because each health organization has its own set of culture, mission, and vision to live by as seen fit by its constituents, a strategic plan is designed not only to settle

Is there a case to downgrade ecstasy to a class B drug in the UK Essay

Is there a case to downgrade ecstasy to a class B drug in the UK - Essay Example It is said to generate extreme heat in the body as a result of highly stimulated frenetic dancing. Each tablet is said cost between ? 10 and ? 20 and the drug has been classified in the list of â€Å"A† class illegal drugs under Misuse of Dugs Act (Arnold, 2013, p. no page no). There has been no significant study on the effects of Ecstasy in Britain. Dr Hendry of National Poisons Information Unit at Guy’s Hospital, London, the only scientist licensed to supply pure Ecstasy, is reported to have commented that the ongoing tussle between the two opposing groups concerned with legalization of drugs is actually preventing research in respect of the drug consumed by almost 500,000 people every week end as to what really is the effect of the drug in their bodies though some studies have revealed that it causes midweek depression. The DOB or the â€Å"Golden Eagle† , a potent derivative of Ecstasy 33 times its strength is reported to have caused several death in Britain during 1998 when it began to be sold. The drug which was developed in the United States is meant for use as antidepressant also called as â€Å"flatliners† claimed to cause out-of-body experience. About 36 derivatives of Ecstasy were brought under the purview of the Misuse of Drugs Act as a class A drug. Purpose of this paper is to examine whether there is a case for downgrading the drug as B class drug in view of it being a soft drug and several campaigns for downgrading. Ecstasy is a derivative of amphetamines which are stimulants. They are responsible for increasing cerebral activity and causing excitement and euphoria. In high doses, it is known to cause hallucinations and drug induced psychosis similar to paranoid schizophrenia. The fatalities caused by this drug are not usually dose-related and postmortem toxicology can only be measured qualitatively rather than on quantitative basis. The impairments caused also do not correlate with blood levels unlike in alcohol consumption. Amphetamines have been used for various conditions in the past. They were also once used to induce anorexia. It is currently used for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. They have euphoriant effects and are responsible for psychomotor stimulation. Users tend to increase their dose up to 50x to overcome psychological dependence caused by the drug. The sympathomimetic effects which can be pronounced and lasting for several hours are : dilated pupils, ta chycardia, hypertension, and tachypnoea. Although death due to overdose is rare, it can occur due to hyperpyrexia, fits and heart failure. Long term consumption in large doses causes psychosis accompanied by paranoid ideas and delusions of persecution. Cardiomyopathy is also found to occur due to its use. Ecstasy, a derivative of amphetamine has mild psychedelic effect and causes pseudo-hallucinogenic effect in high doses. With development of gradual tolerance, its long-term use causes mood disorders. As the drug is classified as emphathogen (or enactogen), is known as love-drug. Its chemical variants have the same effects. Ecstasy related deaths in high-profile events have attracted media attention and most of them have been associated with at least one other drug. Death occurs due to multiple causes and mechanisms including exacerbation of undiagnosed heart conditions,

What was the Western new imperialism, and how did it develop Essay

What was the Western new imperialism, and how did it develop - Essay Example The western countries depended upon African and Asian countries for raw material and colonization was a means to access and exploit the rare and precious commodities of the colonies. Apart from this, for some imperialists, the motive behind imperialism was to spread Christianity, or Western ethics, laws and culture around the world; for others, it was the precious commodities of Asian and African countries and golden chances for investment. For some, it was merely for personal or national glory or a strategic advancement. 1 â€Å"In short, British and French motives were characteristic of the medley of motives that constituted late nineteenth- and early twentieth century European imperialism.† (Fieldhouse 341) The three leading imperialists: Great Britain, France and Germany had their respective motives and interests in establishing their imperialism. Germany wished to defeat the rising socialism in the country and to prove that it was equal to the British by acquiring its own empire. Great Britain had the most advanced maritime technology that enabled it to expand its empire. France, having defeated by Germany in 1871 needed to restore its international standing, which was achieved by imperial expansion in Africa and Southeast Asia.2 In February 1885, the main European powers who were actively vying for control of large parts of Africa signed the Berlin Act which formalized the process for the partition of Africa. France, Germany, Britain and Portugal all had interests in West Africa and the Act provided the guidelines by which each then proceeded to define their territories.3 Thus western new imperialism was greatly facilitated by the technological advancement in the development of machinery, railways, roads, steam-ships, factories and global trade. The weak political structures and their internal conflicts in Asian and African countries made them vulnerable to the new imperialism. The long term

American political history Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

American political history - Essay Example War on terror is one of the major outcomes of the 9/11 incident. It started from Afghanistan on October 7, 2001, immediately after the 9/11 incident. America believes that the major culprits behind 9/11 Osama and Mulla Omar (Taliban leader) are currently operating from the Afghan-Pakistan borders. In order to seize Laden and Mulla Omar and also to destroy Taliban from Afghanistan, America started the Afghan war immediately after the 9/11. It is widely known that the roots of contemporary terrorism originated in Afghanistan when United States sponsored Afghan mujahideen in their bid to repel Soviet Union which resulted in the formation of CIA trained terrorists united under the banner of Osama Bin Laden’s Al-Qaeda† (Ahmed, 2005, p.3). Afghanistan is an uncivilized country and most of the people in Afghanistan are illiterate. Religious fundamentalism is at tits bests in Afghanistan because of the organizations like Taliban. Earlier during the cold war period, Soviet Union intruded into the Afghanistan territories and America did everything possible to remove Soviet troops from Afghanistan. The United States never thought that they will face the consequences of their action in future when they cultivate religious fundamentalism in Afghanistan in order to expel Soviet troops. America deliberately cultivated strong patriotism and religious fundamentalism in the veins of the Afghan people during the Soviet regime in Afghanistan. America made the Afghan people aware of the evil effects of communism. They spread the propaganda that Soviet regime may destroy religion from Afghanistan so that the dominant Muslim population in Afghanistan may be forced to avoid their religious beliefs in future. In other words, America tried to exploit the religious beliefs

Project Management ( Humanitarian Project) Essay

Project Management ( Humanitarian Project) - Essay Example The basic goal of logistics is to transport these resources with as little loss of as little resources as possible. As mentioned above when it comes to a humanitarian project logistics play a crucial role. Logistics in humanitarian projects are thought of as a bridge between the processes of procurement and of distribution (Thomas, 2003). Moreover the speed with which aid is moved from the headquarters onto the field is given great importance, the less time logistics takes to transport resources the greater number of lives can be saved. Thirdly the data obtained from logistics provides a general idea of successful humanitarian efforts have been within a certain part of the world. The data obtained can be of great use regarding any future relief efforts that are carried out (Thomas, 2003). The current project aims at providing food, water and other basic necessities to Mongolia where people are suffering a great deal from starvation and malnutrition. This part of the report would focu s on the tasks within the project that deal with logistics and transportation. This section would take into account all the processes and steps needed to transport various resources to the various distribution centers that are spread across the field. Work breakdown structure As mentioned above logistics encompasses a number of methods and processes that help smooth delivery of resources from one place to another. These processes can be classified into three main categories processing, transportation and support activities. The processing category takes into account the activities that take place before resources are shipped (Kasilingam, 1998). The process of transportation is considered as the heart of the logistics phase and contains the bulk of activities that are carried out within the logistics phase. The third category is known as the support activities. Support activities comprise of all the activities that aren’t part of the core operations of logistics but are essent ial to optimize the processes involved (Kasilingam, 1998). Individual work breakdown dictionary: Packaging of material: ensures that the material and resources that are being transported are not damaged. Temporary storage of material: once material is procured it is temporarily stored in a warehouse or a storage unit until it is processed and is shipped to its destination. Record material shipped: a formal record of all the materials that are shipped or transported is kept in order to keep the material as organized as possible. Collection of data: data on various aspects such as cost, source of the resource being obtained and the staff of the company collects information about the drivers. Maintenance of records: the information that is collected, in the process above, is properly managed in different databases of the company. Analysis of data: analysis of the information that is collected is conducted to help understand how the process of logistics and transportation can further be optimized in future humanitarian projects. Selection of type transport: analysis is conducted to help understand which mode of transport would be best suited to carry out the task at hand. Freight consolidation: a service that is obtained from the shipping company which helps lower cost of shipment and increases the security of materials being transported. This is achieved by

Explore the idea of historical embeddedness in The Brief Wondrous Life Research Paper

Explore the idea of historical embeddedness in The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao - Research Paper Example The narrator therefore wonders if writing this novel is his own way of saying zafa. Every body seems to be cursed! The first chapter, which happens in 1974 to1987 in Paterson, details Oscar’s childhood and early adolescence. For one week when he is seven, Oscar dates two girls, Olga and Maritza, at the same period. However, the threesome momentarily falls apart and the life of Oscar goes downhill from then onwards. In adolescence, he was fat, dorky, and unattractive. His interest in Genre creates him even more unattractive, and his only true friends are Miggs and Al. Oscar’s sister Lola try to encourage him to lose weight to be more masculine for him to land a girlfriend, but Oscar does not regard their advice. When Miggs and Al find girlfriends and purposely dessert him out, Oscar realizes that they even contemplate that he is a failure. Oscar goes to Santo Domingo to visit Nena Inca, and starts writing science fiction as a channel. When Oscar returns he finds a girl c alled Ana Obregon at SAT prep class, instantly falling in love with her. Oscar and Ana become good friends, but never physically intimately attached. Eventually Ana’s boyfriend named Manny returns from an army mission and Ana stops having time with Oscar. Afterward, Oscar goes to Rutgers for college. He hopes life in college may be different, but in there, he realizes that still he is a loser. Oscar, the character who collects the novel together, justly perceives himself as a doubly marginalized figure. A Dominican-American boy growing up in Paterson during the 80s, he is hampered by counter-stereotypical nerdiness in addition to problems of racism and social class. Bashful, precocious, and overweight, Oscar is well versed in Marvel comics and "Japanimation" lore. His ambition is to write a space fictional. A Dominican accent manipulates "Wilde" into "Wao" wile in college. Yunior (Solis 49), his college roommate and best friend, does not quite apprehend Oscar, however loves h im and sees that there something is within Oscar that needs to be known. As the key narrator of the story, Yunior provides a loving portrayal of a tortured person within a tortured family. Redemption of Oscar â€Å"brief wondrous life† manifests at a momentous, but justified, price. Told from the viewpoint of Oscar’s sister Lola with his best friend Yunior, the story of the search for revitalization leads the reader through some of the darkest junctions of a country under severe dictatorial control. Lola pursues her own redemption, far away from her family, particularly her mother and her heritage. She only loves her younger brother Oscar and seeks protecting him from the curse which is tragically affecting their family. Saying that Hapatia Belicia was born to hard era would be an understatement. Beli’s mother died when she was only two months old, never met her father, held by her sisters a few times before they disappeared too, and spent no time in Casa Hatuey . Beli had multiple things sailing against her from the beginning of her pathetic life. She was born sick and underweight, at a time and environment where it would be difficult for any newborn to survive with her accompanied situation. She was also dark skinned, a reason that made her father’s family to absolutely dislike anything to do with her. At this juncture, her life is saved uniquely by a single woman’

Buyer Power of Coffee Industry Essay Example for Free

Buyer Power of Coffee Industry Essay Buyer bargaining power refers to the pressure consumers can place on the industry, influencing companies to provide better products, service, and lower prices. One determinant of bargaining power is the number of buyer available. For the US coffee and snack industry, the large number of buyers is a big advantage. According to National Coffee Association, 54% of American adults drink coffee. Another key driver that gives buyers leverage is if they can do without the product for long durations. If so, the seller incurs losses when customers discontinue use of the product over long periods. However, coffee drinkers are high frequency buyers, purchasing the drink multiple times throughout the week, if not more often. To these people, coffee has become an integral part of their everyday lives. Because they cannot do without coffee, coffee shops can depend on repeat customers. Switching costs are another element to consider when gauging buyer bargaining. If switching costs are high, buyers are least likely to change over to a competing product. Unfortunately for the US coffee and snack industries, there are absolutely zero costs associated with changing to a different product. Similarly, no cost is incurring when switching to another company. Thus, this makes coffee shops have to constantly improve their product lines, drive down costs, improve service, and other aspects to keep customers choosing their shops over someone else’s. The buyer’s per capita consumption also players a role in determining attractiveness of an industry. During recessions, disposable income generally becomes lower and spending of consumption is cut. When consumer spending is lower, people are less likely to spend on snacks and coffee. Overall, due to the high number of users and the high volume of purchases, from the buyer perspective the coffee and snack industry can be considered attractive.

Nature of Granular Cells in Granular Cell Ameloblastoma

Nature of Granular Cells in Granular Cell Ameloblastoma IMMUNOHISTOCHEMICAL STUDY Objective: To evaluate the nature of granular cells in granular cell ameloblastoma Study Design: Tissue specimens of five patients with granular cell ameloblastoma were fixed in buffered formalin and later embedded in paraffin wax. Blocks were sliced into 3micron thick sections for immunohistochemicalanalysis using a panel of markers CD68, Bcl2, S100, P53,Cytokeratin(AE1/AE3),vimentin and desmin Results: All five cases were strongly positive for cytokeratin and CD68. S100 was negative in three cases and showed mild positivity in two cases . Bcl2, P53, Vimentin and Desminwere negative in all the five cases. Conclusions: This study presents a heterogenous nature of the granular cells, however further validation is required with a larger sample size. INTRODUCTION: Ameloblastoma is a benign odontogenic tumour usually located in the jaw bone [1]. It is considered to be the most common odontogenic tumor. It is a tumor of the enamel organ without formation of enamel. Robinson has defined it as: Unicentric, nonfunctional, intermittent in growth, anatomically benign and clinically persistent. The importance of this tumor lies in its common occurrence, locally invasive behavior which causes marked deformity and serious debilitation. They also demonstrate increased recurrence rate after surgery. [2]It has a distinctive microscopic appearance characterized by the presence of peripheral columnar cells with hyperchromatic, reversely polarized nuclei, arranged in a palisaded pattern. [3] Conventional solid or multicysticameloblastoma exhibits six microscopic subtypes namely follicular, plexiform, acanthomatous, granular cell, desmoplastic and basal cell ameloblastoma. [4]. The follicular and plexiform patterns are the most frequent. Less common histopathologic subtypes include the acanthomathous, granular cell, desmoplastic, and basal cell [1,5] Granular cell ameloblastoma (GCA) is one of the rare histological variants of ameloblastomaaccounting for only 3. 5% of ameloblastomas. [5] Granular cell ameloblastoma is characterized by nests of large, eosinophilic granular cells. [6] Aggressive behaviour has been ruled out by many studies and suggest that granular cells are just a transitional or matured phase in the life cycle of ameloblastomas, starting with normal stellate reticulum-like cells, leading to a production of granules and finally leading to degeneration and formation of cystic areas. [7] Whether granular cell change in ameloblastoma is a degenerative process or a harbinger of a more aggressive course is a matter of debate. [8] [Figure 1 2] Previous studies have carried out ultrastructural, histochemical and immunohistochemical methods to characterize the nature of the granular cells , though the mechanism involved is poorly understood. The present study attempts to do an immunohistochemical analysis with a panel of markers to study the nature of granular cells in granular cell ameloblastoma. Due to its rarity accounting to 3. 5%, literature search revealed that majority of them were single case studies . This study is the first of its kind to report antigenic characterization in five such cases with a wide range of markers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Case Selection: Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue blocks of granular cell ameloblastoma were retrieved from the archives of Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, SRM Dental College, Chennai. The clinical data of the patients are listed in table 1. Immunohistochemical Analysis: Immunohistochemical analysis was performed on 3 µ tissue sections on poly-L-Lysine coated slides (Biogenix Life Sciences Limited, CA, US). Pre-diluted ready to use primary monoclonal mouse anti CD-68, anti – Bcl2,anti-S 100, anti-P53, anti-cytokeratin antibody (AE1/AE3), anti-Vimentin and anti-Desmin(Biogenix Life Sciences Limited, CA, US)were used followed by thesuper sensitive polymer HRP detection system(Biogenix Life Sciences Limited, CA, US). Colored reactions were developed by incubating with 33-diaminobenzidine and subsequently counterstained with Harris hematoxylin. Positive and negative controls were included in all reactions. Presence of brown coloured end product at the site of target antigen was indicative of positive immunoreactivity. Evaluation of theimmunoreactivity was based on staining intensity and wereclassified asweak, moderate, and strong. Localization of positively stained cells in peripheral ameloblast-like cells, central stellate reticulum like cells , and granular cells were also evaluated. RESULTS: Immunoreactivity of the markers used in the study are listed in table 2. CD-68expressed strong positivity in all the five cases. Positivity was observed only in the granular cells. Cytokeratin (AE1/AE3) expressed strong positivity in all the five cases by staining peripheral cells, stellate reticulum like cells and granular cells. Bcl2, P53, Vimentin and Desminexhibited negative staining in all the five cases. DISCUSSION: Granular cell ameloblastoma accounts to 3. 5% of all ameloblastomas [11]. The lesion presents with marked transformation of thecytoplasm of the stellate reticulum like cells, so that the cells take on a very coarse, granular, eosinophilic appearance. [5] GCA is known to be aggressive histologic variant among all the ameloblastoma . Granular cells have been described in other odontogenic tumor, the granular cell ameloblastic fibromaand oral lesions, such as congenital epulis and granular cell tumor [12] The nature of various oral granular cell lesions is unclear, and many theories have been proposed for the origin of granules, the principal ones are odontogenic, fibroblastic, histiocytic, myoblastic, and neurogenic. [13] Granular cells are also seen associated with the enamel organ of developing tooth. [14] The granular appearance has been ascribed to numerous lysosomes based on histochemical and electron microscopic findings. Ultrastructurally, the osmiophilic internal structure of the lysosomes varies considerably. [15] Many of these granules approach 1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ °ÃŽ ¼m in size; giant granules of 30à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ °ÃŽ ¼m in diameter are rarely seen. They present with features of finger-print-like membranous structures, myelin figures, small particles, granules, vesicles, lattice structures, and crystalloids. This diversity may represent different materials and stages of digestion of the lysosomal contents. The myelin figures suggest the presence of phospholipid in the granules. Therefore, it has been concluded by many authors that numerous lysosomes represent increased cellular actions of the tumour ameloblasts to digest unwanted components [14,16]. Considerable interest about the nature of granular cells in ameloblastoma ever since it was recognized has happened because of its reported aggressive behaviour however recent literature reports speculate that the granular cell transformation in granular cell ameloblastoma may be associated with the aging phenomenon. [17,18,19] The present study was carried out in five cases of granular cell ameloblastoma to ascertain the nature of the granules using a panel of markers CD68, Bcl2, S100, P53, Cytokeratin (AE1/AE3),vimentin and desmin. Strong positivity for cytokeratin and CD68was noted in all the cases. S100 was negative in three cases and mildly positive in two cases. P53,Bcl 2,Vimentin and desmin were negative in all the five cases. [Table 2] The nature of granules in granular cell ameloblastoma in the previous studies have reported epithelial origin due to consistent positivity with cytokeratin and negativity with other mesenchymal markers. [Figure 3] Presence of strong positivity with CD68 in granular cells indicates the presence of lysosomal aggregates. [Figure 4] Negative expression of antiapoptotic factors such as Bcl-2 and p53 proteins in granular cells indicate that there is increased apoptosis in the granular cells. This finding was similar to the report by Kumomoto et al who reported apoptosis in the granular cells [20]. Contradictory to previous reports is the presence of mild positivity with S100 unlike other previously published reports. S100 is normally present in cells derived from the  neural crest ( Schwann cells, and  melanocytes),  chondrocytes,  adipocytes,  myoepithelialcells,  macrophages,  Langerhans cells,  dendritic cells, and keratinocytes. Mild positivity of S100 could be suggestive of transdifferentiation of the cells. Such heterogenous presentation of granular ameloblastomas evokes more interest to further ratify its true nature. CONCLUSION: The current immunohistochemicalpanel could be evolved further for a better understanding of the nature of the granular cells in ameloblastomas. Further studies with more number of cases could help reason out the antigenic heterogeneity of granular cell ameloblastoma.

Romanesque and Gothic Architecture Similarities

Romanesque and Gothic Architecture Similarities Romanesque architecture between 800 and 1150AD was popular in Western Europe which then rose to the gothic style. Pre-Romanesque style developed by using elements of roman design in the Christian churches in the states of Western Europe. By the end of the pre-Romanesque period Roman elements had fused with Byzantium elements from the Middle East, these influences became known as the Romanesque, meaning in the manner of Rome. The appearance of the Romanesque style was multi storey entrance facades of geometric appearance buildings. Stone was a very popular material used in the buildings. Huge vaults and arches was one of the main characteristics of the time. Masonry vaulting since the beginning of Christian architecture had only been used in buildings of relatively small scale. Romanesque churches, on the other hand, sustained massive barrel vaults, making it compulsory to reinforce the load-bearing walls in order to carry the lateral outward thrust. The frequent presence of galleries above the aisles, sometimes with half-barrel vaults, is in all probability rooted in structural considerations connected with the problem of abutment. The use of wall openings to a minimum, due to the same concern, contributed to the sober yet soberly impressive character of the light. Each individual building has a clearly definite form which often consists of very regular and symmetrical plans so the overall appearance is known as a form of simplicity. Romanesque architecture mainly depends on its walls which are known as piers. Piers are sections of the wall that appear mostly at the intersection of two large arches, which are those crossing under the nave and the transept which is always in a circular shape, each arch is supported on its own supporting rectangular pier which is found at each right angle. Most of the buildings are mostly made from wooden roofs, mostly of a simple truss, tie beam or king post form. When the case of trussed rafter roofs occurs they will then be lined with wooden ceilings. The most important feature of Romanesque churches was the towers. Romanesque church facades were always built to face the west end of the building and are usually symmetrical and has a large central doorway made mostly by its moldings or porch and a arrangement of arched-topped windows which can be seen above the doorway. In Italy there is a single central ocular window which is most probably known a s the most common decorative feature, as well as the arcading. One of the most important structural developments of the Romanesque era was the vault. Originally intended as an alternative to fire prone wooden roofs, vaults became a major innovation in architectural features. The cross vault was used throughout Europe even though it was heavy and difficult to construct so thus it was replaced with the rib and panel vault. The Church I chose the SantAmbrogio was originally built during the 4th Century but was excavated beneath the existing building. With the west facing faà §ade, the use of vaulting is clearly seen throughout the church, down either side of the isle and leading to the nave. Although stone is not the main material used it can be seen in certain aspects of the church. The large central portal includes carvings. Gothic architecture, known at the time as the French style, started in the first half of the 12th century and continued well into the 16th century. Gothic architecture was made up from the previous architectural genre, Romanesque. For the most important part, there was no difference between the two, as there was later to be in Renaissance Florence with the sudden restoration of the Classical style by Brunelleschiwhich came from the early 15thcentury. Eventually Gothic architecture was brought south to Italy by the French. The characteristics of Gothic Style features include those of the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress traceried windows. The thin walls, slender columns, and the very large areas of glass in Gothic buildings gave an impression of lightness. It consisted of a central nave flanked by aisles, with or without transept, and was finished by a choir surrounded by an ambulatory with chapels. The ribs which held up the vaults were aligned to make a pattern of a diamond on the ceilings. These elements were however no longer treated as single units but were properly integrated within a joined spatial scheme. The exterior view was mostly dominated by the twin towers. The facade was pierced by doorways often decorated with varies sculptures and at a higher level appeared a central stained glass rose window. Due to the outward pressure of the vaults there became a need for buttresses. Windows were very important in the churches. Each stained glass had a message in it which was t aken from a bible piece to pass across a message. Gothic architecture is unique in many different ways but mostly by its use of materials. Regional influences played a huge role in the design variations and preferences for the different building materials. While in France the most common materials used were limestone, England witnessed a great use of red sandstone and coarse limestone with marble which was known as Purbeck architectural features. Similarly, while in Northern Germany and the Baltic nations, the tradition was that of mainly using bricks, in Italy, the most preferred material was marble. Timber was also one of the materials used, which is seen in the hammer-beam ceilings and rafters. Some of the structural innovations included, the use of a reinforcing block or wall of masonry adding support to the great vaults arches. Moulded or otherwise decorated band or series of bands around an opening of an arch. Supportive arch constructed within a wall, often above an architrave, serving to absorb weight upon a passageway or portal below. Notre dame in Paris is one of the finest examples of churches in the gothic period. Its sculptures and stained glass show the heavy influence of naturalism. It was among the first buildings in the world to use the flying buttress. The building was not originally designed to include the flying buttresses around the choir and nave. After the construction began and the thinner walls grew ever higher, stress fractures began to occur as the walls pushed outward. In response, the cathedrals architects built supports around the outside walls, and later additions continued as such. Also the front having two towers popular of gothic style as well as the popular central stained glass rose window. Romanesque and Gothic Architecture is very similar in many forms, even though they are very similar in many aspects they also have their own characteristics. Gothic Architecture did get most of its forms from the Romanesque area, things like vaults and arches although they were evolved to be used in gothic buildings. Similarities between gothic and Romanesque includes the use of the arch, which was first seen in the Romanesque churches throughout Europe and then later in gothic buildings, but had been adjusted to a more pointed arch compared to the rounded Romanesque form. Another form found both in Romanesque and gothic architecture is the towers although very irregular in Romanesque they were a form of asymmetrical balance in Gothic architecture. Also the use of stone as a material was also started during the Romanesque period and continued into the gothic time such as timber used for the roof trusses. Another feature would be the use of columns, used in both types of architecture they were changed from the Romanesque to gothic. The multi story Facades were used in both Romanesque and Gothic architecture. Vaulting used during these periods were started with the rib and panel vault in the gothic period but then perfected during the gothic period with the split vault. The rose or wheel windows st arted making an appearance in during Romanesque time but the final central rose window was perfected above the main entrance door usually facing to the west (started during Romanesque) during the gothic period. Each of these eras had their own structural innovations that changed the way architects and builders designed and built the buildings and most can even be seen in architecture today. One of the most important being the vault created during the Romanesque time but altered and perfected during the gothic period. The gothic period brought the use of Masonry in walls to create support in the vaults and arches.Romanesque was designed to be more for protective purposes than for any aesthetic quality, as gothic cathedrals. Monasteries housed the relics of saints, and during the Romanesque period the cult of relics became a major cultural factor influencing architecture. Gothic style has three main characteristics that make it its own unique style: highness, vertical lines and flying buttresses. Romanesque buildings were solid, heavy because of the thick walls, and, as a result of the comparatively small windows, dimly lighted. They had a heavy frame structure. Gothic cathedrals were built w ith a slender skeleton, made up with pointed arches and flying buttresses, which gives impressions of harmony and luminosity.

Roman Gladiators Essay examples -- Roman History

Gladiator Gladiatorial events were a token of the Roman civilization. A brutal form of sacrifice adapted from the earlier civilization of Etruscans, who believed when a person dies, his spirit relies on a blood sacrifice to survive in the afterlife. The first event to take place in Rome was in 264 BC, when Decimus Brutus held a sacrifice to honor his dead father (Roman Gladiator). Soon after these events became an undeniable part of the Romans lives, used for political power and general entertainment. A gladiators life was far from easy. Most were slaves, prisoners of war, or hardened criminals, therefore they were not free men. Often times they were trained and forced to take part in the events, hoping for their freedom if they were to conquer their grim fate and survived for a few years (wik). This was depicted in the most recent movie GLADIATOR. In this film Russel Crowe ‘Maximus' starts out as an army general under Marcus Aurelius, until Commudus murders his own father out of spite for his fathers loyalty to Maximus and not him. He then inherits the title of king, and condemns Maximus to a gruesome fate as a slave/gladiator. Though this doesn't sound like the ideal life, to some at the time is was an appealing, so much so that some free men degraded themselves so they could battle in the games. Was it for basic living? Possibly but more than likely it was for the Fame and Prestige of a Gladiator. These free men were known as Professional gladiators. Training was hard for these great warriors, they often trained at special gladiator schools, the largest of which was connected to the great Coliseum by underground passages. Here they learned how to fight skillfully with swords, daggers, nets, chains, and an... ...m. This huge circular arena was the pinnacle of the Roman Gladiatorial games, and though it isn't fully intact, it is a great reminder of ancient culture. Though today these games seem inhumane and unnecessary, to their ancient culture it was a vacation from everyday stress. Even the Emperor was said to understand that though money and grain would satisfy and individual, large spectacles were necessary for the ‘contentment of the masses' (wes civ). Works Cited 1. Gladiator. Dreamworks Video. 2005. Directed by Ridley Scott. 2. Gladiators. Wikepedia, 2007. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladiator 3. Jackson J. Spielvogel. Western Civilization Third Edition, A Brief History volume 1: to 1715. 2005 Belmont CA. Wadsworth Publishing 4. The Roman Gladiator. Classics Technology Center. 2005. http://ablemedia.com/ctcweb/consortium/gladiator1.html

The Solar System Essay -- Astronomy

The universe was once a vast uncharted area; an area of the unknown. People looked up to the sky in wonder and awe, curious as to what was beyond Earth. What were those lights in the sky? Where did they come from? How did they get there? As time has passed, the universe made up of stars and planets has evolved. What we did not know before, we know now, our cosmos has changed immensely, transforming into what we now call our solar system. Before people had the knowledge and technology we have today, the heavenly skies were an area of endless speculation and inspiration. People from all around the world created their own myths and explanations about the cosmos and the celestial bodies within it. Roughly six thousand years in the past, the Sumerians had the belief that Earth lied in the center of the universe. The Babylonians and Greek civilizations further carried this same belief into their centuries, depicting the heavenly skies as a cosmos revolving around the earth. Looking back into history, the Greeks were the first to put forward the idea that planet Earth was a sphere (now known as an oblate ellipsoid). Then around 340 BC, a Greek philosopher named Aristotle made the discovery of a few of our most influential and fundamental theories that helped to further prove this idea. Aristotle first proposed that one always witnesses the sails of a ship approaching past the horizon first and then its framework. This suggested that the surface of the ocean must be curved and not flat as it was once thought to be. Secondly, Aristotle discovered that the eclipses of the moon were generated by the shadow that Earth casted on it. This further proved the point that if the Earth was flat, the shadow it casted upon the Moon would not app... ...years later that non-uniformity in the antediluvian commenced the formation of galaxies and ancient stars out of pouches of gas condensing due to gravity. Approximately five billion years ago, such pouches of gas that resided in a spiral channel of the MIlky Way Galaxy formed the Sun. An immense circle of gas and refuse that was whirling around the ancient Sun formed to the planets, Earth included, which is predictably 4.6 to 4.5 billion years old. Works Cited Adskin, Alaina. Humanities 242. Away we go!. N.p., 22 Feb. 2011. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. "Big Bang Theory - An Overview." All About Science. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. Cessna, Abby. "Heliocentric Model." Universe Today. N.p., 22 June 2009. Web. 1 Dec. 2011. "Isaac Newton." Scientists: Their Lives and Works. Gale, 2006. Gale Biography. Dec. 2011. "The Universe." The Big View. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2011.

Readiness of Kindergarten Teachers along K-12 Curriculum Essay

One of the major reforms in our country’s educational system is Republic Act 10157, otherwise known as â€Å"The Kindergarten Education Law† or the K to12 (K+12). This Law made the Kindergarten compulsory and mandatory entry to basic education. This Law was initiated by the Aquino administration in order to address the perceived decreasing quality of education in the country, and to meet the international standard regarding the number of years in basic education. This program will require all incoming students to enroll into two more years of basic education. The K+12 System will include the Universal kindergarten, 6 years of elementary, 4 years of junior high school with an additional 2 years for senior high school. The program is implemented and formulated along with the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and with the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). The current k-12 model that had been implemented in the country is an educational landscape for basic and secondary system patterned after the United States, Canada and some parts of Australia had done it. According to Patricia. Velasco’s article, the K- 12 Curriculum envisions â€Å"holistically developed learners with 21st century skills† (DepEd Primer, 2011). This further means that every student would have an understanding of the world around him and a passion for life-long learning while addressing every student’s basic learning needs: â€Å"learning to learn, the acquisition of numeracy, literacy, and scientific and technological knowledge applied to daily life† (p. 6). The main objective of the K to 12 curriculum is to achieve the DepEd’s goal of eradicating illiteracy rate in the country. â€Å"No child is left behind. † (source). Every Filipino has the right to receive quality education in order to become an asset in all dimensions, competent, efficient, effective and productive citizen leading to a decent and comfortable living. The most interesting part concerning the K to 12 program is on its practical assistance for the poor but skillful students. For instance, the student cannot afford to go to college; he is given an option or privilege to be employed not as a professional but on technical job because his skills acquired and developed during his Senior High School can be a guarantee for his  qualification for a vocational employment. Moreover, the program aims to uplift the quality of education in the Philippines in order for graduates to be easily employed. Our country is the only country in Asia and among the countries in the world that has a 10 year pre- university program. The program also aims to meet the standards required for professionals who would want to work abroad. The system aims to fully enhance and develop the students in order for them to be well-prepared especially in emotional and cognitive aspects. Through this, graduates will be able to face the pressures of their future workplace. The K-12 aims the students to have a relevance or importance in the social and economic reality of life. The realm of their role as members of the country. Thus, this vision will be complete through an enhanced curriculum. (K-12 Kindergarten Curriculum Guide 2013) DepEd said that this is the right time to do something better for the field of education, having poor quality education. The DepEd released their stand along the reform. In stressing the need for the new system of basic education, President Benigno S. Aquino III said, â€Å"We need to add two years of our basic education. Those who can afford pay up to fourteen years  of schooling before university. Thus, their children are getting to the best universities and the best jobs after graduation. I want at least 12 years for our public school children to give them an even chance at succeeding. † (source) With the K-12 program, different arguments were formulated. Not all are in favor of the K+12 Education program. There are students complaining of the additional years and there are parents who are not in favor of the additional expenses. But it is an undeniable fact that additional years in the education system will really require more budgets not just from the government but from the  parents as well. Aside from this, students will need additional classrooms, school supplies and facilities. The program would need more qualified teachers as well. Teachers plays an important role 1 / 3 in the K-12 program because they are the ones who will teach the kindergarten pupils, especially the Pre – school teachers. Markovac & Rogulja, 2009, stated that the, early care main goal is to fulfill the Delors principles: â€Å"Learning to be, learning to do, learning to know and learning to live together and to live with others. † The early childhood is a time of rapid growth in all aspects of  children’s development fostered by their natural curiosity and adult support. Therefore, Preschool education is the foundation for a child’s education. The skills and knowledge that a child develops in the preschool years will have a dramatic impact on a child’s success when formal schooling begins as well as life success. Preschool education is important because it can give your child the edge in a competitive world and education climate. The first year of a child’s life is globally acknowledged to be the critical year for lifelong development because the pace of development during these years is  extremely rapid (National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2006 as cited in the K to 12 Curriculum Guide – Kindergarten). While children who do not receive the fundamentals during their preschool years will be taught the alphabet, counting, shapes and colors when they begin their formal education they will be behind the children who already possess that knowledge and skill set. The Pre – school teachers are supposed to have the courage and knowledge to teach the little ones. They will serve as the guide and the second mother at school. Children’s learning will greatly depend on the teachers strategies. Hence, kindergarten teachers should provide them with an engaging and creative curriculum that is developmentally – appropriate, age – appropriate and socio – cul;turally appropriate (DepEd K to 12 Curriculum guide for Kindergaten, 2012). Many new parents start hearing about K-12 since before their kids are born. However, they are not very clear about what K12 means, and why is necessary for them to start inform themselves about it as it will impact their kids’ future. What Is K12 Education? This term was coined to describe primary and secondary education. This includes kindergarten (K) all the way to the 12 grade. This extremely popular type of education is very common among several countries around the world. â€Å"K to 12† stands for kindergarten plus 12 years of elementary and secondary education. This educational system for basic and secondary education is widely adopted around the world. Early childhood education is intended to support and complement family upbringing and the main goal is to create good opportunities and conditions for each child’s well-being, create a stimulating environment for the child’s comprehensive development and learning while taking into account their age, gender and individual features. The role of early childhood care and education settings in improving children’s development has begun to be viewed with increasing importance. The recognition that centre-based childcare is associated with a host of positive developmental outcomes for children, such as increased cognitive abilities, language development, and emotional and social development (Kagan & Neuman, 1997; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Childcare Research Network [NICHD], 2000, 2002, 2008; NICHD & Duncan, 2003), has led to the introduction of a new policy in Ireland that provides every three-year-old child with access to a free preschool place for one year (Office of the Minister for Children and Youth Affairs [OMCYA], 2009). The importance of preschool learning is that first, parents must remember that preschool education is the foundation for your child’s education. As Adams (2008) stressed that early childhood education is the key to building a strong foundation for a child’s educational success. The skills and knowledge (not to mention aptitude and attitude) that your child develops in the preschool years will have a dramatic impact on your child’s success when formal  schooling begins as well as life success, as supported by the House Bill 5367 (2009), aimed to incorporate preschool education to basic education with the DepEd at the frontier of its implementation all over the country. This bill was in consonance with the state’s policy to provide equal opportunities for all children to avail themselves of free and compulsory preschool education that effectively promotes physical, social, intellectual, emotional simulations, let alone values formation to adequately prepare them for formal elementary schooling, second is that by actively  promoting and encouraging your child’s preschool learning you will promote his or her self esteem as well. Help your child gain confidence by making learning fun and easy at this age and you will 2 / 3 help make your child an eager lifelong learner and the finally preschool education is important because it can give your child the edge in a competitive world and education climate. While children who do not receive the fundamentals during their preschool years will be taught the alphabet, counting, shapes and colors when they begin their formal education they will be behind the children  who already possess that knowledge and skill set. According to Anita Woolfolk Hoy and Megan Tschannen – Moran ,(2002), teachers’ sense of efficacy has been related to students outcomes such as achievement (Ross, 1992), motivation, (Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1998) and students’ own sense of efficacy ( Anderson, Greene, & Loewen, 1998). DepEd Secretary Armin Luistro stated that enhancing the competencies of pre-school teachers will have a great impact on the young learners. â€Å"We should ensure that teachers are ready for the challenge of making our young kids’ first school experience enjoyable  and giving them a positive experience that will motivate them to remain in school and complete their education. † This means that pre-school teachers are the implementers of the socially defined curriculum objectives. They help children to adapt to the society and to become its members, to develop interaction between children and different generations, and absorb the main behavioral habits and roles of the community. Also their task is to educate children to become unique subjects and persons as they truly are (Dewey, 1916; Ojakangas, 1998; Siljander, 2002) To become preschool teachers one must have the ability to deal with pupils ages 5. A preschool teacher needs to be proficient in helping children learn how to cooperate, providing fun learning activities suitable for preschoolers, keeping children safe, working as a team member with other teachers and interacting with parents. Preschool teachers need to be eager participants in children’s growth and development, as well as helping students understand how to use their natural curiosity to help make the appropriate developmental leaps in their skills and abilities. They are expected to create an atmosphere where risks can be taken and discoveries made while children remain safe. POWERED BY TCPDF (WWW. TCPDF. ORG).   

Psychology Exercise Essay

A research question was proposed to a student asking why teenagers have more difficulty focusing their attention early in the morning when compared to that of younger children. After carefully considering the evidence in each choice option, the following were ranked in order the most convincing to the least convincing: 1. Thirty well-designed studies published in prestigious journals have discovered that melatonin; a hormone involved in sleep is secreted by the body of teenagers at a different point in the sleep-wake cycle than it is for young children and adults. 2. A nutrition expert, appearing on Good Morning America, stated that she believes teenagers have more difficulty focusing their attention than younger children because, as she learned in her interviews with students of all ages, the teenagers were more likely to skip breakfast. 3. After overhearing many teenagers talking about why they struggle with paying attention early in the morning, it provided a good understanding for the problem. 4. Twenty well-controlled experiments published in prestigious journals strongly suggest a cause for why teenagers have more difficulty focusing their attention early in the morning than do younger children. 5. Two well-controlled experiments published in a prestigious journal suggest a cause for why teenagers have more difficulty focusing their attention early in the morning than do younger children. 6. After a recent airing of a story on the news show Dateline on NBC about some people being morning people and others being night people, Channel 5 asked viewers to call in the reasons they have difficulty focusing attention in the morning. Two reasons were given most frequently, and those reasons were presented on that night’s local news. 7. A relative has a hunch. The decision to give the aforementioned reasons the rank in which they received was based fully on the evidence presented in each statement. Items 1-3 indicated a true correlation between the proposed question and the stated reason and personal understanding. Items 4 and 5 could have been credible sources, but they were absent the findings in the statement offered. Item 6 was not a source focused on the study of teenagers, but rather its research was done on a PSYCHOLOGY 3 broad level. Finally, item 7 did not come from someone with credibility nor did it possess any scientific verification to back up any reasoning. Also, it did not contain a valid reason pertaining to the question at hand. There were only two reasons suggested that contained factual evidence that were believable and credible (Shohov, 2004). Items 1 and 2 proposed that research in relation to the proposed question had been carefully and scientifically performed. Item 1 declared that thirty well-designed studies had been performed concluding that a specific hormone was believed to be the cause for a teenager’s inability to focus early in the morning. These studies had also been published in prestigious journals. Item 2 aired on a publically respected early morning news broadcast. The finder-of-fact was an expert nutritionist who had conducted many interviews on children of all ages. Her conclusions were drawn based on answers voluntarily given by the interviewed teenagers. Her findings concluded that teenagers skipping breakfast had more difficulty focusing early in the morning. Both of these suggested reasons offered a definitive answer to the proposed question, and they bore evidence to support their findings (Shohov, 2004). References Shohov, S. (2004). Advances in psychology research, volume 17. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Motivation & behaviour Essay

Motivation is seen as an internal state of an organism that drives it to behave in a certain way. The behaviour is seen to be goal directed. The clearest examples of this can be derived from the studies made by Cannon. Cannon (1932) developed a primary or physiological drive theory. This theory is associated with the concept of homeostasis, a term used to describe the stable equilibrium of body systems. Claude Bernard (1956) was the first to emphasis the importance of a constant internal environment to survival. The internal environment of the body consists of such systems as the oxygen content of the blood, the concentration of nutrients such as glucose, the water balance and temperature. All of these systems can only fluctuate within narrow limits if health or even survival is to be maintained. As a system fluctuates from its stable state for reasons such as if we go out in the cold or use up a lot of energy, the body tries to restore homeostatic equilibrium through physiological and behavioural mechanisms. For instance if we have not eaten for a while, we develop a body tissue need for food. This leads to a drive to eat, and eating reduces the drive and restores homeostasis. This sequence is a simple example of behaviour motivated by a primary physiological drive aroused by a tissue need, and the whole class of motivated behaviours is represented by these homeostatic primary drives. Cannon’s drive theory has been developed to explain more complicated behaviours. In these models the behaviour is driven by an internal state of need. For example we go to work to earn money, which in turn buys us food, which satisfies our tissue need. The simple picture of a tissue deficiency leading to a specific need, which in turn arouses appropriate behaviour, is very appealing and many experiments have been carried out to see if this is the case. However, most of these studies have been carried out on non-human animals. Therefore this area of study could be criticised for being unrepresentative and ridged. Some behaviours such as why rats eat saccharin cannot be explained by this model, as saccharin is a not a nutritious, but sweet tasting substance, which does not satisfy a primary tissue need. Humans lead full and complex lives; some researches believe that our motivated behaviour cannot be compared to that of a non-human animal. In the past motivation has been divided up into extrinsic and intrinsic motives. With extrinsic motives you can identify a clear reward or incentive or reinforcement for the behaviour. Behaviourists have shown that almost any behaviour can be learnt on the basis of a reward. Other behaviours seem to have no obvious external reward and these are referred to as intrinsic motives. Humans have many behaviours without a strong link to physiology such as curiosity and manipulation. However these drives are simply descriptions of the behaviour so in theory anyone could make up there own set of motives. Murray (1938) used his Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to provide a more reliable set of motives. TAT consists of 20 pictures of people in various situations. The participant is asked to use their imagination to write a story about each picture. The stories are then analysed in terms of the types of motivation represented. From these analyses, Murray produces a set of 20 social motives, or psychogenic needs. These include achievement, affiliation, aggression, deference, nurturance, play, and understanding. Murray’s list sounds convincing and is based on the TAT. However this itself is a projective test and relies on Murray’s own analysis. McClelland (1961) supported Murray’s motives. By using a rating scale, he measured achievement imagery in the stories that children write. McClelland’s work has given achievement more validity as one of the central human motives. However, McClelland’s work is not representative of the whole as it only takes into account children. Other motives in Murray’s list have not been studied in great detail and so lack a degree of validity.

Research Paradigm

Webster Dictionary defines paradigm as â€Å"an example or pattern: small, self-contained, simplified examples that we use to illustrate procedures, processes, and theoretical points. † The most quoted definition of paradigm is Thomas Kuhn's (1962, 1970) concept in The Nature of Science Revolution, i. e. paradigm as the underlying assumptions and intellectual structure upon which research and development in a field of inquiry is based. The other definitions in the research literature include: Patton (1990): A paradigm is a world view, a general perspective, a way of breaking down the complexity of the real world. Paradigm is an interpretative framework, which is guided by â€Å"a set of beliefs and feelings about the world and how it should be understood and studied. † (Guba, 1990). Denzin and Lincoln (2001) listed three categories of those beliefs: Ontology: what kind of being is the human being. Ontology deals with the question of what is real. Epistemology: what is the relationship between the inquirer and the known: â€Å"epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge and the process by which knowledge is acquired and validated† (Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996) Methodology: how do we know the world, or gain knowledge of it? When challenging the assumptions underlying positivism, Lincoln and Guba (2000) also identified two more categories that will distinguish different paradigms, i. e. beliefs in causality and oxiology. The assumptions of causality asserts the position of the nature and possibility of causal relationship; oxiology deals with the issues about value. Specific assumptions about research include the role of value in research, how to avoid value from influencing research, and how best to use research products (Baptiste, 2000). Dill and Romiszowski (1997) stated the functions of paradigms as follows: Define how the world works, how knowledge is extracted from this world, and how one is to think, write, and talk about this knowledge Define the types of questions to be asked and the methodologies to be used in answering Decide what is published and what is not published Structure the world of the academic worker Provide its meaning and its significance Two major philosophical doctrines in the social science inquiry are positivism and postpositivism. The following is a contrast of the research approach that are entailed from these two different philosophical paradigms. Positivism Postpostivism Philosophical Inquiry The physical and social reality is independent of those who observe it Observation of this reality, if unbiased, constitutes scientific knowledge. Behavioral researchers in education and psychology exemplify an approach to scientific inquiry that is grounded in positivist epistemology. Social reality is constructed by the individuals who participate it. It is constructed differently by different individuals. This view of social reality is consistent with the constructivist movement in cognitive psychology, which posts that individuals gradually build their own understandings of the world through experience and maturation. The mind is not tabula rasa (blank slate) upon which knowledge is written. Research Design The inquiry focuses on the determination of the general trends of a defined populations. The features of the social environment retain a high degree of constancy across time and space. Local variations are considered â€Å"noise†Ã‚ · Study of samples and population Generalization: first defining the population of interest, select a representative of the population, the researcher generalizes the findings obtained from studying the sample to the larger population using the statistical techniques to determine the likelihood that sample findings are likely to apply to the population. The scientific inquiry must focus on the study of multiple social realities, i. e. the different realities created by different individuals as they interact in a social environment. Find a ways to get individuals to reveal their constructions of social realities, including the person being studied and the researcher. Reflexivity: focus on the researcher's self as an integral constructor of the social reality being studied The study of ndividuals' interpretations of social reality must occur at the local, immediate level. Study of cases: have you learned something about his case that informs us about another cases? Generalization of case study findings must be made on a case-by-case basis. In other words, it is the reader who made the generalization based on his or her own interpretation: The focus is on the transferability instead of generalization. Data Collection and Design. The use of mathematics to represent and analyze features of social reality is consistent with positivist epistemology: a particular feature can be isolated and conceptualized as a variable. The variables can be expressed as a numerical scales. Deductive analysis: identify underlying themes and patterns prior to data collection and searching through the data for instances of them: hypothesis testing Focuses on the study of individual cases and by making â€Å"thick† verbal descriptions of what they observe. Analytic induction: search through data bit by bit and then infers that certain events or statements are instances of the same underlying themes or patterns View of causality A mechanistic causality among social objects Individuals' interpretation of situations cause them to take certain actions Lincoln and Guba (2000) made the following distinctions between positivist and naturalist inquiries. Positivist Naturalist Reality is single, tangible, and fragmentable. Realities are multiple, constructed, and holistic. Dualism: the knower and the known are independent. The knower and the known are interactive and inseparable. Time and context free generalizationOnly time-and context-bound working hypotheses are possible. Real causes, temporally precedent to or simultaneous with their effects (causal relationship)All entities are in a state of mutual simultaneous shaping, so that it is impossible to distinguish causes from effects. Inquiry is value free. Inquiry is value bounded.